Jane Eyre chronicles the life of its titular character, an orphan raised by her cruel aunt and mistreated at the Lowood charity school. As she matures, Jane becomes a governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with Mr Rochester. However, she discovers that he is already married to Bertha Mason, a woman confined in the attic due to her madness. Faced with the choice between passion and morality, Jane leaves Thornfield and finds refuge with St. John Rivers, who proposes marriage and missionary work, but she declines in favour of personal independence. Eventually, she returns to Rochester, who has been humbled by the loss of Thornfield and his eyesight. The novel concludes with Jane marrying Rochester on her own terms, signaling a new phase of equality and fulfillment.
Authorial intent
Brontë’s Jane Eyre examines the social codes that bind women in Victorian society, who are, as a result, often relegated to the domestic sphere. Brontë challenges these expectations by presenting a heroine who values self-respect, personal freedom, and emotional fulfillment. The novel critiques the constraints of patriarchy, particularly through Jane’s refusal to submit to Rochester’s control or marry St. John Rivers for duty’s sake. Brontë also explores themes of passion, repression, and female creativity, and uses the characters of Jane and Bertha to express the duality of the female experience—where Jane symbolises rational control and Bertha symbolises repressed rage. Ultimately, through Jane Eyre, Brontë offers a critique against Victorian norms, making a case for women’s autonomy in both personal and social spheres.
Genre and socio-historical context
The novel combines Gothic fiction with Bildungsroman elements. Gothic fiction emphasises madness, emotional intensity, and eerie settings, evident in Thornfield Hall and the mystery surrounding Bertha Mason. Gothic tropes include confinement, isolation, and the supernatural, such as the moment when Jane hears Rochester’s voice across the moors—a signal of their emotional connection that transcends physical distance.
As a coming-of-age novel, Jane Eyre traces Jane’s psychological growth from childhood to adulthood, emphasizing her quest for autonomy, love, and self-respect. Brontë’s blend of genres allows her to explore the complexities of identity, freedom, and societal expectations.
From a social-historical perspective, Jane Eyre reflects Victorian attitudes toward gender roles, class, and mental illness. In 19th-century England, women were expected to embody purity and domestic virtue. However, Brontë challenges these norms by presenting a heroine who values individuality and moral strength over submission. Class mobility is another theme, as Jane rises from orphanhood to financial independence. The depiction of Bertha Mason reflects Victorian fears surrounding mental illness, colonialism, and the "othering" of non-European women, as Bertha is a Creole woman from Jamaica.
Themes
Female Identity and patriarchal control
Throughout the novel, the eponymous protagonist, Jane, resists efforts to control her identity. From her childhood with Mrs. Reed to her adult relationships with Rochester and St. John Rivers, Jane is confronted with figures who attempt to shape her according to societal expectations.
From the outset, young Jane's confinement in the “red-room” after defending herself against John Reed's physical abuse exemplifies the punishment feminine rage through isolation and accusations of insanity. The symbolism of the room’s "deep red damask" and "massive pillars" constructs it as a space of both containment and judgment, where Jane's "turbulent" emotions are deemed evidence of a "passionate" nature requiring correction. Here, Bessie's admonition that Jane must "acquire a more sociable and childlike disposition" to be "loved" represents the perception of female anger as a transgressive trait antithetical to proper femininity. Thus, the construction of Jane as a “liar” weaponing her fits to “trick” others and escape punishment reflects the imposition of Victorian morality onto women as means of oppression; here, legitimate emotional responses are reframed as manipulative feminine devices, linking female anger to moral corruption.
Another example of this control is Mr Brocklehurst, who embodies religious hypocrisy, demanding that Jane and the other girls at Lowood practice humility and submission. However, Jane refuses to accept a life of passive obedience, declaring, “I am no bird; and no net ensnares me: I am a free human being with an independent will.”Rochester also attempts to control Jane, offering her love but expecting her submission. When he proposes that Jane become his mistress after their failed engagement, she responds that she will “respect [her]self.” This decision reflects Jane’s commitment to autonomy and self-worth, even at the cost of personal happiness. Similarly, St. John Rivers offers Jane marriage devoid of love, insisting that she sacrifice her personal desires for religious duty. Jane rejects his proposal, understanding that true fulfillment requires both love and freedom.
Repression, madness, and female rage
Bertha Mason serves as a symbol of repressed anger and desire, embodying the consequences of societal expectations that require women to suppress their emotions. Locked away in the attic, she symbolises both confinement and resistance. Here, she functions as Jane’s dark double or Gothic doppelgänger, expressing the rage that Jane must conceal to survive in Victorian society. Bertha’s violent actions—such as setting fire to Rochester’s bed and, later, burning down Thornfield—represent the destructive potential of suppressed emotions. Rochester's recounting of Bertha's descent into "mania" also reveals how female rage is medicalised as mental illness requiring containment. His description of her "violent and unreasonable temper" before any signs of madness suggests that her anger preceded and perhaps precipitated her diagnosis. Accordingly, the Gothic imagery of Bertha's "purple face" and "bloated features" during her nocturnal appearances serves to render her rage monstrous, while her confinement in the "third story" symbolises the suppression of women's emotional expression to maintain social order.
The attic where Bertha is imprisoned is a metaphor for the repressed aspects of the female psyche. Bertha’s confinement represents Victorian society’s attempts to control and silence women who defied conventional expectations. Her act of burning Thornfield serves as both an act of destruction and liberation, clearing the way for renewal and transformation. This fire not only symbolises the collapse of Rochester’s dominance but also enables Jane to return to him on equal terms.
Jane’s ability to channel her emotions contrasts with Bertha’s destructive rage. Whilst Bertha burns Thornfield, Jane leaves, preserving her integrity and independence. Brontë suggests that acknowledging and managing emotions is essential for personal growth, whereas repression leads to chaos and destruction. This critiques Victorian norms that demanded passivity and silence from women, highlighting the psychological and social toll of such expectations.
Marriage, power, and equality
Bronte also critiques the power dynamics within marriage, emphasising the importance of equality in relationships. Rochester’s initial relationship with Jane is marked by manipulation and secrecy—he hides Bertha from Jane and attempts to control the narrative of their relationship. However, Jane insists on maintaining her autonomy, telling Rochester, “I have as much soul as you—and full as much heart!”
Jane’s decision to leave Thornfield evinces her refusal to enter a relationship of unequal power, even though she loves Rochester. Her choice to walk away, despite the emotional pain it causes her, reinforces her commitment to self-respect. Later, when Jane returns to Rochester after Thornfield’s destruction, the power dynamics between them have shifted. Rochester’s blindness and injury symbolise the collapse of his authority, allowing them to rebuild their relationship on mutual respect and emotional honesty.
Jane’s declaration, “Reader, I married him,” signifies her agency, reversing traditional gender roles and asserting her control over her life and choices. Brontë suggests that marriage should be a partnership of equals, rooted in mutual love and respect, rather than a relationship of domination or dependence.
The resolution of other characters further illustrates this complex interplay of choice and constraint. St. John Rivers' missionary work in India represents the ultimate submission of individual will to divine purpose, yet his letters reveal continuing internal struggle - "My Master... will soon call me home." Meanwhile, Diana and Mary Rivers achieve domestic happiness through marriages that balance personal inclination with social propriety, suggesting how conventional choices can accommodate individual agency.
Social mobility and autonomy
Jane’s rise from orphan to independent woman reflects the novel’s critique of class hierarchies. As a governess, Jane occupies an ambiguous social position, neither fully a servant nor an equal to her employers. Despite this, Jane insists on being treated with dignity and respect, saying, “Do not treat me as an inferior.”
Jane's initial position as governess places her in a liminal space where proximity to Rochester enables romantic possibility while class difference restricts legitimate expression. The desire to shed “the medium of custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh" represents attempts to transcend social barriers through spiritual equality, yet her subsequent flight from Thornfield after the failed wedding reveals how economic dependency ultimately constrains choice.
The inheritance Jane receives from her uncle grants her financial independence, enabling her to return to Rochester without being dependent on him. This financial autonomy is crucial to achieving equality in their relationship, reinforcing the novel’s message that self-reliance and personal growth are essential for fulfillment.
Further, Brontë criticises he upper class’ exploitation of those beneath them while dismissing their worth. For example, Blanche Ingram’s disdain for governesses—whom she calls “detestable” and “a nuisance”—reveals the hypocrisy of the wealthy, who rely on the labor of others while refusing to acknowledge their contributions. Similarly, the conditions at Lowood School expose the systemic neglect of vulnerable children, highlighting the broader social inequalities of Victorian England.
Belonging
Jane’s journey is one of self-discovery, as she learns to assert her identity against the expectations imposed on her by others. From childhood, Jane is defined by her status as an orphan and regarded as unworthy by Mrs. Reed and her cousins.
Her engagement to Rochester initially offers her the hope of a home and a family, but the discovery of Bertha Mason shatters this dream. Later, her kinship with the Rivers siblings fulfills her desire for connection, as she replaces the labels of "orphan" and "waif" with "cousin" and "sister." These evolving relationships highlight Brontë’s assertion that identity is shaped through human connections and experiences.
Notably, Brontë extends the theme of identity to Rochester. His internal conflict reflects his struggle to reconcile his past actions with his desire to live authentically. Torn between societal expectations and personal happiness, Rochester is fragmented, presenting different versions of himself to different audiences. It is only after the destruction of Thornfield and his subsequent humbling that Rochester achieves a sense of authenticity. Brontë rewards this transformation by partially restoring his sight and granting him a union with Jane based on honesty and equality.
Integrity, morality, and justice
Brontë’s Jane Eyre underscores the value of maintaining integrity in the face of temptation and challenges. Characters who adhere to their moral principles are rewarded, whilst those who compromise them face punishment or suffering. Jane’s integrity is tested repeatedly, particularly in moments of intense emotional conflict. For instance, after discovering Rochester’s secret marriage, she wrestles with the temptation to stay with him despite the immorality of the situation. Her anguish is palpable as she says, “I will keep the law given by God; sanctioned by man. I will hold to the principles received by me when I was sane, and not mad—as I am now.” This moment highlights Brontë’s belief that true integrity requires sacrifice and the rejection of self-indulgence.
Brontë ties integrity closely to self-respect. Jane leaves Thornfield not out of fear of societal condemnation but because staying would violate her personal moral compass. This decision reinforces her autonomy and underscores Brontë’s assertion that integrity is synonymous with inner strength. Moreover, the novel juxtaposes Jane’s principled actions with those of other characters, such as Rochester’s initial dishonesty and Mr Brocklehurst’s hypocritical cruelty at Lowood.
Interestingly, the concept of duty is intertwined with integrity in the novel. Mrs Fairfax’s loyalty to Rochester, though misguided, reflects her sense of duty, whereas Jane’s choices at Thornfield and later at Morton are often guided by her responsibility to others. However, Brontë criticises blind adherence to duty, as seen in St. John Rivers’s rigid devotion to missionary work at the expense of personal happiness. Jane’s rejection of St. John’s proposal underscores her belief that integrity and self-respect must align with personal fulfillment.
Characterisation
Jane Eyre
The eponymous protagonist of the novel, Jane is a fiercely independent young woman who struggles against the injustices and oppression she faces. Brontë celebrates Jane's strong sense of morality, her intellect, and her unwavering spirit, even as she endures mistreatment. Jane's plain appearance is frequently remarked upon, but those who care for her also recognize her inner beauty and admirable qualities. Through Jane, Brontë presents a compelling portrait of a woman who refuses to compromise her values in pursuit of social acceptance or material comfort.
Edward Fairfax Rochester
Rochester emerges as an enigmatic figure. Outwardly, he appears to be a gentleman of leisure, but his brooding demeanor and secretive nature hint at a troubled past. Rochester's affection for Jane is shrouded in mystery, and his past deceptions and moral failings ultimately threaten their relationship. However, Brontë ultimately allows Rochester to atone for his misdeeds, paving the way for his union with Jane and the fulfillment of her desire for a true home and belonging.
Mrs Fairfax
As the housekeeper of Thornfield Hall, Mrs. Fairfax is a kind and dignified woman who serves as a maternal figure to both Rochester and the new governess, Jane. Whilst she initially expresses concern about the suitability of Jane's marriage to Rochester, her advice stems from a place of genuine care and concern for their well-being. Mrs Fairfax's loyalty to Rochester and her desire for his happiness complicate Brontë's portrayal of class dynamics and human relationships.
Adèle Varens
Adèle, Rochester's young ward, serves as a foil to the orphaned Jane, revealing Brontë's belief that individuals should not be held responsible for the sins of their parents. Jane's kind and compassionate treatment of Adèle allows her to soften her view of humanity, demonstrating the importance of dignity and affection, even for the most unfortunate. Adèle's presence also provides Jane with an opportunity to exercise her maternal instincts and nurturing qualities, foreshadowing her eventual role as a wife and mother.
Bertha Rochester (née Mason)
Bertha, Rochester's first wife, is a shadowy and largely unseen character in the novel. Described in dehumanising terms, Bertha's "madness" is used to justify her confinement and Rochester's deception. Whilst Brontë's portrayal of Bertha reflects the limited understanding of mental illness in her time, the stark contrast between Bertha and the morally upright Jane serves to highlight the injustice of Jane's own treatment, suggesting that she is no less "mad" than Bertha.
St. John Rivers
St. John Rivers, Jane's distant cousin, is a stern and aloof clergyman whose moral rectitude and sense of duty stand in contrast to the passionate and conflicted Rochester. Though St. John may appear cold and unfeeling, his candor with Jane and his belief in the importance of charitable work demonstrate a different kind of moral strength. Brontë's portrayal of St. John deconstructions Victorian morality and depicts the ways in which individual circumstances can shape one's approach to life and relationships.
Diana and Mary Rivers
The kind and intelligent Rivers sisters represent the family and sense of belonging that Jane has long craved. Their modest yet content lives provide a stark contrast to the tumultuous experiences that have defined Jane's early years. Through the Rivers siblings, Brontë emphasises the importance of genuine compassion and the ability to find happiness in one's circumstances, rather than relying solely on material wealth or social status.
Mrs. Reed and her Children
The Reed family, particularly the cruel and spoiled children, serve as a foil to Jane, highlighting the injustice and cruelty she endures. Brontë suggests that such behavior is learned rather than innate, as the Reed children's increasing selfishness and detachment from others mirror the failings of their mother, Mrs. Reed. The ultimate fates of Mrs. Reed and her son, John, underscore Brontë's belief in the consequences of moral failings and the importance of self-reflection and redemption.
Helen Burns
Helen Burns, Jane's friend at Lowood, provides a model of quiet acceptance and unwavering faith that profoundly influences Jane's own approach to life. Helen's stoicism in the face of adversity and her belief in the benevolence of God offer Jane an alternative to the harsh and punitive religious teachings she has encountered. Helen's untimely death also marks a significant turning point in Jane's emotional and spiritual development, as she begins to grapple with the complexities of faith and the harsh realities of the world.
